Overview

• Main thesis: A hierarchical, structured thinking and communication technique that can be used for structured speaking and writing processes; So the book has a prerequisite assumption: you already know how to write beautiful sentences and paragraphs;

• Four parts
1. The logic of expression, chapters 1 to 5
2. The logic of thinking, chapters 6 to 7
3. The logic of problem-solving, chapters 8 to 9
4. The logic of presentation, chapters 10 to 12

Why use a pyramid structure

Basic rules of human thinking:

• The brain automatically categorizes information into groups in a pyramid structure to facilitate understanding and memory;

• Communication pre-organized into a pyramid structure is easier for people to understand and remember;

• Communication content should be intentionally organized into a pyramid structure, including oral and written expression, speaking, training, presentations, reports, etc.

How to organize thoughts into a pyramid structure?

Categorize and group, organize thoughts into a pyramid:

• Don't organize too much content at once, no more than 7±2;

• Find logical relationships, abstract and summarize;

• Final expression method: first present the overall concept, then list specific items;

Express from top to bottom, lead with conclusions:

• Clarifying the order of expressing thoughts is the most important way to write a clear article;

• Clear order means presenting summary thoughts first, then the specific thoughts that are summarized;

• A conscious statement: In communication, human thinking capacity is limited, Part of the thinking capacity is used to identify and interpret the words read, Part of the thinking capacity is used to find relationships between various thoughts, Part of the thinking capacity is used to understand the meaning of the expressed thoughts;

Think from bottom to top, summarize and abstract:

• Categorize and group all information, abstract and summarize, and express it in a top-down manner;

• Organize sentences containing single thoughts or concepts into paragraphs;

Thoughts in the article must comply with the following rules:

1. Vertical: Thoughts at any level in the article must be a summary of thoughts at the next level; (upper level summarizes lower level) The main activity in thinking and writing is to abstract more concrete thoughts into new thoughts;

2. Horizontal: Thoughts in each group must belong to the same logical category; (same level independent and exhaustive) Thoughts in the same group must have logical commonality;

3. Horizontal: Thoughts in each group must be organized in logical order; (4 types of logical order) Deductive order: major premise, minor premise, conclusion; Time (step) order: first, second, third; Structure (spatial) order: Boston, New York, Washington; Degree (importance) order: most important, next important, not important;

Internal structure of the pyramid

How to organize thoughts and content you want to express:

• Vertical relationship between themes and sub-themes;

• Horizontal relationship between sub-themes;

• Narrative method of the introduction;

Vertical relationship

Solving a problem:

• Answering questions; (dialogue in the form of answers)

A question exists in the vertical relationship:

• Thoughts are at different levels of abstraction, and the main purpose of expressing thoughts is to convey new information to the audience, which inevitably raises logical questions from the audience;

2 things to avoid:

• Avoid raising questions from readers/audience before being prepared to answer them;

• Avoid giving answers to questions before raising questions from readers/audience;

Horizontal relationship

When considering how to express at the next structural level, you must ensure that the expression can answer the questions raised at the previous level, and also ensure that the expression is logical;

Expressions must have clear inductive or deductive relationships, but cannot have both inductive and deductive relationships simultaneously;

Deductive thought combinations consist of several coherent arguments; (syllogism)

• The first thought is a statement about a certain phenomenon in today's world;

• The second thought is a statement about the subject or predicate of that sentence;

• The third thought explains the implicit meaning when these two statements exist in the world simultaneously; (summarize the arguments in the deductive thought combination to raise one level of abstraction)

In inductive thought combinations, thoughts are interconnected and can be represented by a noun that represents all thoughts in the combination, such as reasons for support, reasons for opposition, steps, problems, etc.

Inductive reasoning to answer questions raised by a thought must ensure that the group of thoughts has logical commonality and can be represented by the same noun;

Specific writing approach for introductions

Structure of the introduction:

• In an article, the introduction includes a preface, foreword, used to outline information already known to the reader, and establish a connection between this information and the question the article will answer, then the author will focus all energy on providing answers to questions; So in different situations and different expression methods, the introduction can also be called an opening, etc.

Summary

• Create conflict, provide background, raise questions, answer original questions;

• Answering questions faces problems in two directions: vertical problems and horizontal problems;

• Vertical problems: Questions are not solved in one step, they will be broken down into steps and multiple small problems; in the vertical direction, small questions need to be answered multiple times;

• Horizontal problems: The group of thoughts at the same level is to solve the questions at the previous level, so the group of thoughts at the same level needs to ensure that the argument is reasonable;

How to build a pyramid

Top-down method

Use the introduction structure to start organizing the views, arguments, and ideas in your mind by determining the main theme of the article;

Specific process

• Determine/propose the theme

• Anticipate the main questions

• Write the introduction: Background-Conflict-Question-Answer (S-C-Q-A)

• Engage in question/answer dialogue with the audience

• Repeat question/answer dialogue for new questions from the audience

Bottom-up method

Specific process:

• List all the key points you want to express;

• Find logical relationships between the points; (causal relationships, etc.)

• Draw conclusions;

Notes for beginners

1. First build the structure, try the top-down method first;

2. Write the background first in the introduction, use the background as the starting point for the introduction

3. Spend more time thinking about the introduction, don't skip it;

4. Put historical background in the introduction;

5. Only include content in the introduction that readers would not question its truthfulness;

6. At the key sentence level, inductive reasoning is preferable to deductive argumentation;

Specific writing approach for introductions

Storytelling structure of the introduction

Significance of the introduction:

• Explain a certain "background" S, a "conflict" C that occurs under the "background", which raises a "question" Q, and finally give an "answer" A to this question;

Introduction of the components

Background:

• Independence of statements: No other statements are needed before this statement to argue its accurate meaning;

• Non-controversial nature of statements: Expecting that readers will definitely understand and accept the statement;

• Time point for introducing background:
1. When you can make independent, non-controversial statements about the theme of the article;
2. When you can "lock" yourself in a specific time and space, thus preparing for storytelling

Conflict:

Refers to an unfavorable change, but does not always imply "unfavorable change"; similar to factors that drive plot development when telling a story, can prompt readers to ask questions;

Questions arising from conflict typically fall into 4 categories:

• What should we do?

• How to implement the solution?

• Is the plan correct?

• Why didn't it achieve the expected results?

Key sentence points:

• Also known as key points, core views, first-level conclusions, first-level arguments, important arguments;

• Used to answer new questions raised by the article's main theme, and also present the framework structure of the article;

• Key points that provide a general explanation of the answer, these points will relatively generate new small questions, and then SCQA needs to be used for another round of explanation;

4 structures of introductions:

• Standard: Background → Conflict → Answer;

• Straight to the point: Answer → Background → Conflict;

• Emphasizing concern: Conflict → Background → Answer;

• Emphasizing confidence: Question → Background → Conflict → Answer;

Principles of the introduction

• The purpose of the introduction is to "prompt" rather than "tell" readers certain information;

• The introduction must contain the 3 elements of storytelling: background, conflict, answer;

• The length of the introduction depends on the needs of the reader and the theme;

Common patterns of introductions

Articles typically answer four types of questions:

• What should we do?

• How should we do it (will do/have done)?

• Should we do it this way?

• Why did this happen?

Issuing instructions

• Formula
• Background S: We plan to do X;
• Conflict C: You need to do Y;
• Question Q: How do we do Y?

Requesting support

• Formula
• Background S: We encountered problem X;
• Conflict C: Our solution Y;
• Question Q: Should I implement Y?
• Answer A: Usually there are 3 to 4 options to choose from;

Explaining methods

• Because someone encounters a problem and needs to be told how to solve it;

• Formula
• Background S: Must do X;
• Conflict C: Not yet ready to start Y;
• Question Q: How to prepare for Y?

Comparing options

• If unable to propose a solution that completely solves the defined problem, try some solutions to make suggestions;

• Formula
• Background S: We want to do X;
• Conflict C: We have various different ways to do X;
• Question Q: Which option is most reasonable?

• The corresponding key sentences are also easier to determine:
• Why is this plan more reasonable than other plans? (time cost, human cost, ease of implementation, etc.)
• Reasons for abandoning other plans?

Deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning

Relationship between reasoning and the pyramid:

• There is a logical order among thoughts in the same group, and the specific order depends on whether the logical relationship between the group of thoughts is deductive reasoning or inductive reasoning;

Deductive reasoning

Definition

• A method of reasoning from general to specific

• Takes the form of syllogism, i.e., a form of argument deriving a conclusion from a major premise and a minor premise;

• If a group of thoughts expresses a conclusion derived from deductive reasoning, just summarize and generalize with the final conclusion of the group as the main body to get the thought at the higher level;

• In the pyramid structure, the thought at the level above the deductive argument process is a generalization of the deductive process, ultimately leading to the conclusion;

3 steps

Three steps of exposition

• Explain a certain situation that already exists in the world;

• Explain relevant situations that exist simultaneously in the world;

• Explain the implicit meaning when these two situations exist simultaneously;

Three steps of reasoning

• Problems that appear or phenomena that exist;

• The source or cause of the problem;

• Solutions to the problem;

Application

• Currently existing problems: Problem one, problem two, problem three... (research results)

• Causes of the problems: Cause one, cause two, cause three... (analysis conclusions)

• Measures that should be taken: Measure one, measure two, measure three... (recommendations)

Inductive reasoning

Definition

• Categorize and group facts, thoughts, or viewpoints with commonalities, and summarize their commonality (or argument);

• If a group of thoughts is grouped inductively, i.e., the group consists of some thoughts that are closely connected, then the thought at the previous level must explain the meaning represented by the relationship between the thoughts in the group;

2 prerequisites

• Correctly define the group of thoughts

• Accurately identify and eliminate thoughts in the group that are not proportionate to other thoughts

Steps of induction

• Find a noun that can represent all thoughts in the group

• Check reasoning by asking questions from bottom to top

Differences between deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning

• In deductive reasoning, the second point is an argument about the subject or predicate of the first point

• In the deductive process, each thought is derived from the previous thought, while this relationship does not exist in the inductive process;

• In inductive reasoning, thoughts in the same group have similar subjects or predicates;

Summary of Part One

Chapters 1 to 5 belong to the first section: The Logic of Expression

What is the Pyramid Principle?

• A hierarchical, structural thinking method, structured thinking;

• Composed of vertical relationships, horizontal relationships, and introductions;

• Order: background, conflict, question, answer, key sentence explaining the answer, key sentence arguments;

Why use the Pyramid Principle?

• Aligns with the audience's thinking: first understand the main, abstract thoughts, then understand the secondary thoughts that support the main thoughts;

• We are usually accustomed to a cause-and-effect thinking mode, and need the Pyramid Principle structure to change to: effect first, then cause;

• Improves communication efficiency, especially for writing reports, writing, etc.;

How to use the Pyramid Principle?

• Categorize and group, organize thoughts into a pyramid structure;

• Find logical relationships, abstract and summarize;

• Top-down, conclusion first;

Applying logical order

Time order

When multiple actions must be taken (such as 3 steps to solve a problem) to achieve a result,

• Actions form a process, workflow, or system, i.e., a collection of causes that together produce a result;

• The process, workflow, or system must operate sequentially in chronological order;

Finding causes based on results

• Avoid processes or workflows that are too long;

• Appropriate categorization: eliminate some sub-processes, optimize workflow:

• Imagine taking actions yourself and imagine the results, which can greatly shorten the time to consider whether thought groupings are reasonable;

Revealing implicit logical thinking

• Break down thoughts within groups

• Summarize thoughts that change

• Reorder summarized thoughts

Structure (spatial) order

When drawing organizational or industry structure charts, it is usually necessary to divide the whole into parts, or compose parts into a whole;

• The parts are independent of each other, without overlap, and are exclusive;

• All parts are completely exhaustive, with no omissions;

Use structural order to check thinking

• Check each of the author's key sentence points in sequence;

Degree (importance) order

The order applied to a group of matters that are gathered together because they have some common characteristic;

• Clearly indicate the items (thoughts, views, problems, etc.) in each group;

• In each group, sort according to the degree to which each problem possesses that characteristic;

3 ways to divide organizational activities

• Based on the activities themselves

• Based on where the activities take place

• Based on a collection of activities for specific products, markets, or customers;

Identify and adjust inappropriate groupings

• Finding the correct grouping basis for a presumed grouping can more clearly express your true thoughts;

• Checking logical order is an important means of checking whether a grouping is appropriate;

• Find the order between various categories of thoughts;

Summarizing groups of thoughts

Current situation

• We often simply combine some thoughts together without completing the thinking process;

• Many thoughts listed together only have general relationships, not specific relationships;

• The content of many thought groups does not truly belong to the same group, so it cannot be accurately summarized;

• So we need to try to abstract, refine, and summarize groups of thoughts, ensure thoughts belong to the same group, specific methods are below

Avoid using "thoughtless sentences" in summary sentences

Thoughtless sentences conceal the fact that thinking is incomplete

2 ways to continue thinking and generate new abstract thoughts:

• Make further comments on the thoughts (conclusions) at that level;

• Find thoughts similar to the thoughts (conclusions) at that level;

2 expressions of thought summarization:

• When summarizing action-oriented thoughts (introducing actions, behaviors, movements, steps, processes), explain the results achieved after taking actions (effects, goals achieved);

• When summarizing descriptive thoughts (introducing background, information), explain the meaning of the commonalities these thoughts have (the significance of commonalities);

Summary sentences should state the results/goals produced by actions

When you list some actions you think should be taken to achieve a goal, you must first indicate the results these actions should achieve before you can judge whether you have omitted any actions;

The actions or steps in the group must be mutually independent without overlap, completely exhaustive without omission;

The summarizing sentence must state the direct result caused by completing the various actions or steps, and the wording must be clear and specific;

First express various actions, steps, processes, etc., in clear statements,

Then distinguish different levels of abstraction,

Then directly summarize the results of actions from various actions, steps, processes, etc.;

When seeing different actions, steps, processes, etc., intentionally distinguish their levels to control the actions or steps at each level to within 5;

How to distinguish actions:

• If you want the reader to take one action before taking another, then these two actions belong to the same level;

• If you want the reader to take the former action to produce the latter action, then the former action is at the next level down from the latter action;

Finding commonalities between conclusions

Find structural commonalities between thoughts

For the same type of subject:

• If the subjects of this group of sentences are exactly the same, find the commonalities between the predicates;

For the same type of predicate (action or object):

• If the predicates' actions or objects are exactly the same, find the commonalities between the subjects;

Having the same type of implicit thought:

• If both subjects and predicates differ, find the commonalities between their implicit meanings;

Seeking closer relationships between thoughts

• First determine the generalizing statement

• Then apply the concept of logical order to check if there are any omissions in the group of thoughts

Complete the entire thinking process of refining and summarizing

People easily write a "thoughtless sentence" when they have difficulty drawing clear conclusions

Whether there is an inductive relationship between two sentences

You can first consider several thoughts that look similar to have some commonality and group them together, and then imagine the results these thoughts can produce together;

Summary of Part Two

Chapters 6 to 7 belong to Part Two: The Logic of Thinking

Purpose: How to present thoughts to the audience clearly, orderly, and accurately

3 logical orders

3 techniques for summarizing thoughts

Defining the problem

A problem is the gap between the current situation and the goal

The gap doesn't appear out of nowhere, but comes from a specific background and arises under a series of specific conditions

The process of finding answers to problems arranged in logical order

• Is there/could there be a problem (or opportunity)?

• Where is the problem?

• Why does it exist (root cause, reason for the problem)?

• What can we do?

• What should we do?

• In the sequence analysis method, between steps 2 and 3, specific flowcharts and causal structures can be used

• In steps 4 and 5, use logic trees to derive possible solutions

Framework for defining problems

First determine the answers to 3 questions:

• What happened

• What do we dislike about it

• What do we want

Expand the basic parts of the problem

Entry point/prologue

• Typical prologue structure:
1. Organizational chart
2. Computer configuration
3. Factory/office location
4. Markets in various regions

• Typical prologue process:
1. Sales or marketing activities
2. Information systems
3. Management processes
4. Logistics systems
5. Production processes

Disturbance/confusion

• Refers to events that are happening, about to happen, or will happen in the future, posing a threat to the relatively stable background introduced in the prologue, thereby triggering the non-desired result R1;

• External causes: Changes occurring outside the environment where the structure or process is located

• Internal causes: Changes within the company

• Other causes recognized recently: Changes that you recognize or have evidence showing will definitely or possibly occur

Current situation, non-desired result R1

• Refers to problems that readers need to solve or may face, or opportunities that may be seized

• Negative impact on company structure or process

• Disruption of work in a specific aspect

• Triggering reconsideration of business, products, processes

• Challenging basic assumptions about customers, markets, competition, core competencies, processes, or technologies

Goal, desired result R2

• Readers hope their existing structure or process produces the desired result R2 instead of the non-desired result

• The first step in solving the problem is to determine the specific R2 value

At what stage is the solution (has it been proposed, or has it been accepted);

• Most common problem stages:
1. Know how to go from R1 (current situation) to R2 (goal);
2. Know how to go from R1 to R2, but not sure if it's correct;
3. Know the correct solution from R1 to R2, but don't know how to implement it;

• Most common problem variations:
1. Know the solution from R1 to R2, and have implemented it, but it doesn't work for some reason;
2. Several solutions have been identified, but don't know which one to choose;

• Possible but uncommon situations:
1. Know R1, but cannot specifically describe R2, so cannot find a solution;
2. Know R2, but not clear if one is in R1; (typical benchmarking)

Raise appropriate questions;

Background S

Conflict C

Question Q

Check if the introduction presents the defined problem;

Check if the pyramid answers the questions;

Structured problem analysis

Standard process for analyzing problems

Collect information → Describe findings → Draw conclusions → Propose solutions

Starting with information materials

• Discover key factors for success in the industry, study market characteristics, "price-cost-investment" characteristics, technical requirements, industry structure, and profitability;

• Evaluate clients' strengths and weaknesses based on sales and market position, technical position, economic structure, finance, and cost accounting;

• Compare client's performance with key success factors;

• Provide specific recommendations for seizing opportunities and solving problems;

Structured analysis of problems before collecting materials

• Propose various hypotheses
1. Study the structure of the area where the problem lies, define the prologue or entry point in the problem framework

• Design one or several important experiments, eliminate one or more hypotheses based on the results produced

• Draw clear conclusions through experiments

• Take remedial measures accordingly

Designing a diagnostic framework

Presenting tangible structures

• A system composed of different units, each completing a specific function:

• Draw a picture of the current or ideal state of the system to help decide whether to answer these questions, and find and analyze the causes of the problem;

• Understand business processes and major trends, use this as a basis to identify dangerous areas:

• Segment the industry, determine the capacity and competitors of each segment;

• Analyze value addition, how costs are controlled, sources of profit, which profits are easily affected, and the use of assets, etc.;

• Look for balance points, determine which businesses are more vulnerable based on collected data;

Looking for causal relationships

Financial structure

• To find the reasons for low return on investment, you can draw a diagram of the company's financial structure

• Each element can be broken down to identify the affected factors, and further determine the composition of each influencing factor

Task structure

• Used to represent important tasks that the enterprise must organize and implement;

• Mark each element as an independent management task;

• After discovering where the problem lies, immediately determine what action plan to take

Activity (action, measure) structure

• Consider all possible causes that might lead to such results, and connect them at appropriate levels;

Categorizing possible causes of problems

• Categorize all possible causes by similarity, provided that this prior categorization helps to comprehensively analyze various facts;

Framework

• This structure/system leads to R1. What is its current state?

• This structure/system leads to R1. Logically, what was it like in the past?

• The ideal structure/system leads to the expected R2, what should it be like?

Using the diagnostic framework

Establishing logic trees

List all sub-problems of the problem in layers, starting from the highest layer and gradually expanding downward;

• Take a known problem as the trunk, and then begin to consider which related problems or sub-tasks this problem is related to;

• Every time you think of a sub-problem, add a "branch" to the problem, indicating what this "branch" represents, a large branch can have smaller branches, find related problems as much as possible;

3 elements:

• Elementalization: Summarize the same problems into elements;

• Frameworkization: Organize various elements into a framework, following the principles of mutual independence and complete exhaustiveness

• Association: Elements within the framework maintain necessary interrelationships, simple but not isolated;

3 types:

• Issue tree: Breaking down problems layer by layer
1. Break down vague problems into countless specific small problems;
2. Used in the early stages of problem-solving, or when no hypothesis has been formed

• Hypothesis tree: Argumentating hypothetical problems
1. Directly propose a solution, then provide sufficient evidence to prove or disprove this hypothesis;
2. Only when there is enough understanding of the current situation can reasonable hypothetical questions be proposed and argued

• Yes/No tree: Simplifying problems
1. Choose between "yes" and "no"; if "yes", lead to recommendations; if "no", lead to other recommendations;
2. Used to confirm whether the problem is single and within a specified range;

Yes/No problem analysis

5 usage scenarios

• Need to make urgent decisions;

• More than one solution has advantages;

• There are many variables to consider and many objectives to consider

• Standards for measuring results vary and often conflict

• The final results of actions may significantly affect decisions in other aspects

2 steps

• Draw a diagram of the area in sequential order, indicating the main decision variables at each stage;

• Propose hypotheses about how these main decision variables affect the achievement of objectives, and decide which decisions should be made based on the main decision variables that have a significant impact on achieving objectives;

An important consideration: sources of all problems?

Summary of Part Three

Chapters eight to nine belong to Part Three: The Logic of Problem Solving

Premise

• Talks about framing problems, key points are to determine the entry point/prologue, disturbance/confusion, R1, R2, and finally connect these key points to SCQA;

Diagnostic framework

• Using logic trees, yes/no problem analysis methods to find possible solutions to problems

Logic trees

Yes/No problem analysis

Presenting the pyramid in writing

Common methods of presenting pyramid levels in writing

• Multi-level heading method

• Underlining method

• Numerical numbering method

• First-line indentation method

• Bullet point method

Multi-level heading method

• Cannot have only one heading at each level

• Similar thoughts (views, arguments, suggestions, etc.) should use the same sentence pattern

• Headings should extract the essence of thoughts

• Headings and body text should be considered separately

• Each group of headings should be introduced collectively in advance

• Don't overuse headings

Need transitions between contexts

• Storytelling

• Connection between preceding and following content

• Summarizing the content of each part

• Drawing complete conclusions

• Explaining next steps

Presenting the pyramid in PowerPoint

Basic PowerPoint rules

• Text slides should only contain the most important thoughts (views, arguments, recommendations, etc.) that have been properly grouped and summarized, and should be as concise as possible when narrating

• Presentations should combine text and graphics, using various charts as accompaniment

• Presentations should present a well-thought-out story outline and script

Designing text PowerPoint slides

• One PowerPoint slide should demonstrate and explain only one argument at a time

• Arguments should use complete declarative sentences, not title-style language

• Text should be as brief as possible

• Use simple vocabulary and numbers

• Font size should be large enough

• Pay attention to the interest of slides

• Use progressive expansion to increase interest

From pyramid structure to presentation

• Write the introduction in as much detail as possible, writing down every word you want to say in the order you want

• In the form of writing a story outline

• The writing order for each PowerPoint slide, from top to bottom, is the introduction elements, key sentence points, and arguments at the next level below the key sentences;

• Make a preliminary decision on the presentation method

• Prepare scripts for each PowerPoint slide, ensuring the entire presentation flows smoothly like storytelling

• Complete PowerPoint design and drawing

• Practice, practice, and practice again

Presenting the pyramid in text

• Draw mind maps

• Copy images into text

Appendix

Methods for solving problems without structure

Differences between types of reasoning

• Deductive reasoning: If A then B, so A necessarily B

• Inductive reasoning: A leads to B, so A likely B

• Abductive reasoning: B occurs, if A then B, so possibly A

Analytical and scientific problem-solving methods

Basic process:

• What is the problem?
• Imagine the gap between the results you get now and the results you/imagine
• Define the difference between the results you get and the results you should get according to conventional theory

• Where is the problem?
• Imagine various elements in the current background that might lead to that result
• Explain traditional theoretical assumptions that might lead to differences

• Why does the problem exist?
• Analyze whether and why each element leads to that result
• Assume possible structures that can eliminate differences and explain results

• What can we do?
• Propose logically alternative options that change the structure and produce the desired results
• Design experiments to exclude one or more hypotheses

• What should we do?
• Establish a new structure that embodies these changes and produces more satisfactory results
• Propose theories again based on experimental results

The respective processes of introductions solving 4 types of problems

Question: What should we do?

• How to solve the problem

• How to get a satisfactory action plan

• Alternative options

• Discussion

• Suggest changing a practice that the reader has not questioned

Should we do as planned?

• Is the action plan correct

• Will there be problems

• Will the solution work

• Can the solution achieve the goals

• Project proposal

How should we do it?

• How to do what must be done

• How to implement the solution

• How you did something

• Tell how to do new things

• Tell how to do something correctly

• Issue instructions

• Tell how it works

• Project proposal

What caused it to happen?

• First project progress summary

• Subsequent project progress summaries